El
abordaje puede acaecer entre dos embarcaciones, cualquiera que sea su clase o
tamaño, por acercamiento, encuentro o choque más o menos violento de una a otra
embarcación, pero siempre sobre la base de hallarse las dos naves separadas,
independientes una de la otra, con libertad de movimientos, nunca ligadas entre
sí y con relación de cierta dependencia de cualquiera de ellas con relación a
la otra.
"General
Average" is a marine insurance concept of sharing loss. A classic example
is cargo thrown overboard in order to save the ship and the remaining cargo.
General average is a loss "Loss is really the meaning of the word term
'Average," involving 1) a common danger of imminent peril, and 2) a
voluntary sacrifice of cargo which is 3) successful in avoiding a peril. In Sea-Land
Service, Inc. V. Aetna Insurance Co., the second Circuit traced general average
back to its ancient origins and explained it as: "one who partakes in a
maritime venture incurres loss for the common benefit, it should be shared
ratably by all who participate in the venture." The Court further noted
that most bills of laden provide for adjustment of general average by the
York-Antwerp Rules which define a general average act and allow for losses
which are a direct consequence of that act.
Barratry
comprises a loss that results from mariners including: every species of fraud
and knavery intentionally committed by master or mariners with the intention of
benefiting themselves at the expense of their owners, and any gross
malversation, or criminal negligence by whatever motive whereby the owners or
the charterers of the ship are in fact damnified. Fraudulent or grossly negligent
conduct by a master or crew that is prejudicial to a shipowner.
"Blacks" Barratry is usually covered as a named peril in H&M
policies.
La ley inglesa de seguros marítimos trata de que el
asegurador será responsable por los daños o pérdidas cuya causa próxima sea un riesgo cubierto por
la póliza de seguros, en consecuencia es fundamental que, como peritos de
seguros, nuestro reporte contenga la mención a la causa próxima del siniestro,
así como los distintos factores que pudieron haber contribuido con el
accidente, de modo tal que los ajustadores o aseguradores tengan el completo
conocimiento del tema y puedan aplicar la cobertura, o no, así como determinar
o señalar a los responsables.
Extraído de un diccionario en español:
CAUSA PROXIMA:
Es la causa directa de la pérdida o daño al objeto
asegurado, si bien no tiene por que ser necesariamente la causa más cercana en
el tiempo.
CAUSA REMOTA:
Es la causa o serie de causas que desencadenan un
acto dañoso, siendo la más lejana de las causas que finalmente produce una
pérdida o daño.
CAUSA INTERVINIENTE INTERMEDIA:
Los peritos deberían identificar una causa
intermedia, es decir cualquier interrupción en la cadena de acontecimientos que
circundan el siniestro que haya actuado en el incremento de los costos de
reparación. Por ejemplo, dicha causa
intermedia podría hallarse donde la tripulación trató una reparación temporal
la cual se averió posteriormente. Asimismo las causas intermedias podrían
suceder en el curso del proceso de reparación, donde un cigüeñal al estarse
reparando mediante nuevo pulido sufre daño irreparable debido a errores.
n. un hecho que ocurre entre la acción original
incorrecta o peligrosa y el daño en sí. Por lo tanto, la “conexión causal”
entre lo incorrecto y los daños es quebrada por la causa intermedia. Esta es
una situación “pero por” donde la intervención resulta ser la verdadera razón
por la cual el daño ocurrió. El
resultado es que la persona que desató la cadena de acontecimientos ya no es la
responsable y no se le hallará responsable por los daños hacia la persona
afectada. Por ejemplo: Federico Fueguero en forma negligente causa un incendio
incontrolable al hacer trabajos de soldadura en su compresora de heno cerca de
una pila de almiar, el heno prendió fuego y éste empezó a propagarse hacia la
hacienda contigua. Sin embargo, apenas
los bomberos habían casi contenido el fuego el Sr. Gastón Gasolinero pasa con
su camión de gasolina por la línea de fuego haciendo caso omiso de las órdenes
del bombero y se detiene en la pista entre la propiedad de Fueguero y Ricardo
Ranchero. Las chispas de fuego causan
que el camión del Sr. Gasolinero explosione, lo cual hace que el fuego se
dirija a los graneros y la casa de Ranchero incendiándola. La negligencia de Gasolinero es una causa
intermedia la cual libró de responsabilidad a Fueguero. A veces a esto se le
llama una causa sobreviniente o reemplazante.
CAUSA REEMPLAZANTE
n. la misma que una "causa sobreviniente"
o "causa reemplazante" la cual es un hecho que ocurre después del
acto inicial que conduce al accidente y considerablemente causa el
accidente. La causa reemplazante libera
de responsabilidad a la parte cuyo acto empezó la serie de eventos que llevó al
accidente, ya que la negligencia
original no es más la causa próxima.
Extraído de un diccionario en inglés:
CAUSA PRÓXIMA:
La causa más cercana; la causa inmediata o final del
accidente o daño. La causa próxima surge solamente cuando una sucesión de
incidentes contribuye a una pérdida o daño.
CAUSA REMOTA:
La causa más lejana o la primera en una serie de
incidentes que origina una pérdida.
CAUSA CAUSANS:
La causa real o verdadera. En una sucesión de incidentes que contribuye a una pérdida o daño, la influencia combinada de todos incidentes es considerada como la causa real o verdadera.
"Warehouse
to warehouse clauses" are usually included in the marine extensions
clauses that can be added to cargo policies. Under basic warehouse to warehouse
cargo policies the insurance attaches from the time the goods leave the
warehouse/ location named in the policy, for the commencement of the transit,
including customary transportation and transshipment "Trucks," until
the goods are delivered to the final warehouse named in the policy. Under some
warehouse to warehouse policies the insurers will provide maximum time limits
of coverage by express intention in the contract.
A
"bill of lading" is document of title acknowledging the receipt of
goods by a carrier or by the shippers agent. An "order bill of laden"
is a negotiable bill of lading stating that the goods are consigned to the
order of the person named in the bill. A "straight bill of lading" is
a nonnegotiable bill of lading that specifies the consignee to whom the carrier
is contractually obligated to deliver.
A defect
has been said to be latent when it cannot be discovered by a person of
competent Skill using ordinary care. The words "latent defect" as
ordinarily understood apply to something existing at the time the vessel or
other vehicle was constructed, and such as was not discovered and might not be
discovered by ordinary methods of examination. The Carib Prince, 63 Fed. Rep.
267 A latent defect within the meaning of the Inchmaree clauses is any defect
which has not resulted form wear and tear and which cannot be discovered by a
diligent assured by the use of the methods available to him. Tulane Law Review,
Vol. Xli, p. 337 A flaw in welding existing at the commencement of the voyage
and not discoverable with the exercise of due care. The Rover, 33 Fed. Rep. 515
"Excess
insurance" is cheap liability insurance that acts as an "Umbrella
policy" which gives overhead protection. This excess insurance only gets
reached when primary policy has been exhausted. This type of insurance is very
much determined by the clear language of the policy, because most excess
insurance is written on a following form that adds on to the first primary
contract. Thus the excess insurance usually follows the form and exclusions of
the primary policy. Most excess insurance is written to exclude drop down
coverage if primary insurer becomes insolvent. The law states that the primary
insurer owes a duty to the excess insurer to act in good faith, and to act as a
prudent uninsured would.
Se
consideran casos fortuitos o de fuerza mayor, los hechos que no han podido
preverse, o que previstos, no han podido evitarse.
Los casos
fortuitos consisten en hechos producidos por la naturaleza, tales como: lluvias
torrenciales, granizadas, nevadas, sismos, incendios, huaycos, o cualquier otro
tipo de siniestros originados por accidentes o desastres naturales, etc.
Los casos
de fuerza mayor son los hechos generados por el hombre, tales como las huelgas
en aeropuertos y en compañías de transportes, la cancelación de los vuelos, los
accidentes colectivos de equipos, las guerras, los actos de sabotaje y de
terrorismo, etc.
·
Un
acontecimiento que resulta de causas naturales sin intervención humana y que no
se puede evitar con atención o previsión razonable (por ejemplo inundaciones,
rayos, terremotos, huracanes).
·
Un
hecho inevitable, impredecible e incontrolable. Tienen que darse las tres
condiciones Para que se considere hecho de fuerza mayor.
The
information received from Lloyds agents and other sources which at one time was
passed from underwriter to underwriter at Lloyd's coffee shop now appears as
the Lloyd's List, which is a "news" paper produced externally to
Lloyd's that specializes in marine insurance. The Lloyd's list is used to tell
arrivals and departures of vessels, and now has evolved into news and energy
prices. The Lloyd's List has been a printed news paper science 1734. The cost
is about $1700 a year for the paper, and with the website it is $2700 a year.
The Lloyds shipping index now is responsible for listing where a ship is
located.
The Lloyd's
Open Form "LOF" is an internationally recognized standard salvage
agreement that is carried on the bridge of virtually every vessel in the world.
The updated and improved version "Which was launched on Friday 1 September
2000" marks its tenth revision since Lloyd's of London first devised the
contract in 1908. The new version of the form has been shortened from six pages
to just two by removing most of the legal and procedural information and
placing it in a separate reference document. The language used has also been
simplified to take account of the increasingly international nature of ships'
crews. The form was created by Lloyd's in order to save a ship's master from
having to take part in time consuming contract negotiations while the vessel
was in jeopardy. The LOF has been based on a "No Cure No Pay"
relationship between the salvor and the shipowner. Agreement on the use of the
contract means that all parties know exactly what terms are being signed, so
that salvage services can commence with a minimum of delay. The form also
provides a framework for the collection of security to protect a salvor's claim
and arbitration machinery in the event that salvors and the owners of the
vessel cannot agree on the payment for successful services. Although Lloyd's
plays no part in the arbitration, it retains the services of a panel of
experienced arbitrators to hear cases arising under the form.
"Maintenance"
is a per diem payment intended as a living allowance. The purpose is to provide
subsistence and lodging, not as a compensation for injury or damage. This
amount should relate to food and lodging expenses of the local that the injured
seamen is residing. "Cure" is the payment is medical expenses. Both
maintenance and cure are to be paid by the ship owner until such point as the
injured seamen reaches "maximum cure." "Maintenance and
cure" are said to be an ancient duty of the shipowner to provide aid to
seamen that become ill or injured while in the service of the ship. This
implicit relationship between the seamen and their employer are without regard
to negligence and unseaworthiness. The only exception to this duty is the
willful misconduct of the seamen. Maintenance and cure has arisen in law and
practice to encourage marine commerce, while at the same time protecting seamen
form the unique hazards of their work and the unscrupulous actions of
shipowners.
The Marine
Insurance Act of 1906 was passed by Parliament to codify the law relating to
marine insurance as practiced in England. Section 1 of that Act defines a
contract of marine insurance as a contract whereby the insurance undertakes to
indemnify the assured, in a manner and to the extend thereby agreed against
marine loss.
Syndicates
are groups of underwriters that get together to form their own
"clubs" that specialize in one type of insurance at Lloyd's. These
syndicates are often "Groups of Names," with great underwriting
capacity. They can write motor, non-marine, aviation, marine, but often
specialize in one area. A marine syndicate will therefore specialize in writing
marine insurance.
In the
absence of fraud, a fact concealed or misrepresented will not void the
insurance policy unless it is material. The test of materiality is whether the
fact would have influenced the underwriter as to whether to accept the risk or
as to the premium to be charge for such risk. This misrepresentation or
concealment need not bear directly upon the risk or the premium to be declared
material. The question if the act of misrepresentation or omission is material
by influencing the underwriters judgment is a question for the jury "or
the Court in the absence of jury." King v. Alstate There are reciprocal
duties to act in good faith by both parties. There is an obligation to disclose
to the underwriters and insurers all details that deal with risk. This is true
whether this information is asked or not. This is 20 X 20 hindsight test
whereby a misrepresentation concealment, breach, or conditions, will not be a
basis to avoid the policy unless 1 of 3 things is believed to be the result of
the truth. 1 would not have insured the risk 2 would not have insured the risk
at the premium 3 or would not have insured under the same terms.
It is a
general rule in the United States, that if a vessel or goods insured are
damaged to more than half of the value, by a peril insured against, or more
than half of the freight is lost the assured may abandon and recover for a
total loss. This legal formula as described by Phillips is not applicable to
underwriters, who will most certainly stipulate in their hull and machinery
policies that there will be no recovery for a constructive total loss unless
the expense of recovering and repairing the vessel exceeds the insured value.
Moreover the assured must give notice of the abandonment to his underwriters
within a reasonable time after receipt of reliable information of the loss.
Thus the recent American Hull Clauses state: There shall be no recovery for a
constructive total loss hereunder unless the expense of recovering and
repairing the vessel would exceed the agreed value. In making this
determination, only expenses incurred by reason of a single accident or
sequence of damages arising form the same accident shall be taken into account.
Robbery,
kidnapping, or other criminal violence committed at sea. A similar crime
committed aboard a plane or other vehicle; hijacking. The unauthorized and
illegal reproduction or distribution of materials protected by copywrite,
patent, or trademark law.
En el
seguro marítimo se entiende por riesgos de mar los que corren las cosas
aseguradas por tempestad, naufragio, varamiento con rotura o sin ella, abordaje
fortuito, cambio forzado de ruta, de viaje o de nave, echazón, fuego,
apresamiento, saqueo, declaración de guerra, retención por orden de algún
gobierno, represalias y, generalmente, todos los casos fortuitos que ocurran en
el mar, salvo lo exceptuado literalmente en la póliza.
The term "Perils of the sea" is
defined in the Marine Insurance Act as the fortuitous accident or casualties of
the seas, and not the ordinary action of wind and waves. (Rule for Construction
of Policy, No. 7). This part of the act was based on Thomas Wilson v. The
Xantho (12 App. Cas. 503), and later followed and expanded in Freedman&
Slater v. M.V. Tofevo, (1963 A.M.C. 1525) where the Court quoted the following
form Giulia (218 Fed. 744): "Perils of the sea' are understood to mean
those perils which are peculiar to the sea and which are of an extraordinary
nature, or arise from irresistible force or overwhelming power, and which
cannot be guarded against by ordinary exertion of known skill and
prudence." Collision between vessels is sometimes included as perils of
the sea, but is usually defined and expressed in the "collision
clause." There is also a presumption that a vessel that is lost without a
trace is to be presumed to be lost through some peril of the sea.
Seaworthiness
under American law is an "absolute, non-delegable, and continuing"
duty of the shipowner to provide a vessel that is seaworthy to the passengers
and crew. The standard of seaworthiness is not perfection, but reasonable
fitness: not a ship that will weather every conceivable storm or withstand
every imaginable peril of the sea, but a vessel reasonably suitable for her
intended service. This is a duty on the part of the shipowner to furnish a
vessel appurtenances, and crew which are reasonably fit for use. Seaworthiness
can best be defined by looking to see what Courts have considered unseaworthy.
There is a substantial amount of case law that has defined what has in fact
made the vessel or her crew unseaworthy.
The sue and
labor clause written into many Hull policies makes the assurer liable, in
addition to his liability for loss or damages to the vessel, for expenses
reasonably incurred by the assured in attempting to recover or preserve the
insured property. Sue and labor charges arise when the assured, his servants,
factors, or assigns incur expenditure to minimize or avert a loss which has
occurred or is threatened. The loss minimized or averted must be one for which
the underwriters are liable, and must arise out of the basic perils insured
against and not be due to those perils especially covered by the collision
clause. Munson v. Standard Marine Ins. Co., 156 Fed. Rep 44.
In 1920,
the United States Congress passed the Jones Act which permitted a seamen
injured in the course of his employment by the negligence of the shipowner,
master, or fellow crew members to recover damages for his injuries. Prior to
the Jones act proximate cause of any injury was relevant. The Congress abolished
contributory negligence as a defense under the Jones act. As this act is very
pro labor rights, Longshoremen where also held to be "seamen" and
covered under the Jones Act as well. Seas Shipping Co. v. Sieracki, 328 U.S.
85. Moreover, the Jones Act has made it a duty on the part of shipowner to
exercise reasonable care.
A marine
insurance contract is one of "Unberrimae Fidei," requiring the utmost
good faith by both parties to the contract. This duty has been recognized since
as early as 1766. This concept came about due to the fact that the insurer of
lacks the practical means to verify the accuracy or sufficiency of the facts given
to him while establishing a contract for insurance. The assured is required to
disclose every fact within his knowledge that is material to the risk, even if
no direct inquiry is made. Emberime Fedi allows a policy to be void by
admission. The Courts have sated that there is no is no meeting of the minds
regarding a material fact of the contract. Thus, there is no valid contract,
and the "void at inception rule" works with Emberime Fedi to express
that the policy language then should not exist. The importance of making a full
discloser of the material facts when negotiating a marine insurance policy was
shown in the case of Wilburn Boat where the Court pointed out that it was a
firmly established principle of marine insurance that "a mistake or commission
material to a marine risk, whether it be a willful or contractual, or a result
form mistake, negligence or voluntary ignorance, avoids the policy."
Inherent
vice has been defined as "anything which by reason of its own inherent
qualities is lost without negligence by anyone" Greensheilds v. Stephens,
1908 1 K. B. 51 other definitions include "the natural behavior of the
subject matter being what it is, in the circumstance in which it is carried."
Much cargo is subject to inherent vice "Bananas," and it is the duty
of the insurer to prove that the inherent vice was the proximate cause of the
loss or damage if he seeks to avoid liability. The assured may be called upon
to produce evidence that the damages did not arise solely form natural causes,
and not from the negligence of the carrier.
Monday, 10 de May de 2004